USA - Birth of a Nation - 1783 - 1814
After the declaration of Independence, The War of Independence and the Treaty of Paris in which the British recognized the USA as an independent nation. However, what kind of nation would they be?
After announcing independence in 1766, John Hancock was the first president of the continental congress. He is remembered for his large and stylish signature on the United States Declaration of Independence, so much so that the term John Hancock or Hancock has become a nickname in the United States for one's signature.
He was followed by Henry Laurens, John Jay, Samuel Huntington, Thomas McKean, John Hanson, Elias Boudinot, Thomas Mifflin, Richard Henry Lee and John Hancock again in the space of 10 years.
Jefferson Egalitarianism
4 years at peace as a country Americans lived in an unregulated, simple, locally produced, self-sustained, community of small farmers. Thomas Jefferson envisioned a country without class systems, foreign interests or a ruling class. Jefferson envisioned a country ruled by yeoman farmers. Jefferson felt that urbanization, industrial factories and financial speculation would serve to rob the common man of his independence and economic freedom. To Jefferson, expansion of the United States into the American west would provide the space and land needed to support an agrarian democracy. Jefferson exerted strong executive influence to oversee the Louisiana Purchase for such a purpose. He felt it was important that the national economy be based in agriculture and the labor of the independent farmers.
Pennsylvania Mutiny of 1783
No taxes to pay troops.
Congress received a message from soldiers of the Continental Army stationed in Philadelphia, which demanded payment for their service during the American Revolutionary War. The next morning on Friday, June 20, the State House was mobbed by as many as 400 soldiers demanding payment.
Alexander Hamilton convinced the protesters to let congress meet to discuss payment. However, upon meeting they agreed that negotiations would lead to additional protests and instead insisted that congress should instead have a safe place to meet. The Pennsylvanian committee couldn't make any promises so congress went to princeton temporarily.
George Washington on hearing of the mutiny on June 24, sent 1,500 troops under the command of Major General William Heath and General Robert Howe, who came out of retirement, to suppress the mutiny.
In his Federalist No. 43, published January 23, 1788, James Madison argued that the new federal government would need authority over a national capital to provide for its own maintenance and safety.
On July 9, 1790, Congress passed the Residence Act, which approved the creation of a national capital on the Potomac River. The exact location was to be selected by President George Washington, who signed the bill into law on July 16. Formed from land donated by the states of Maryland and Virginia.
1784- Pennsylvania & Connecticut declare war on one another over a land dispute.
George Washington said, "we are attempting an impossibility, & very soon shall become (if it is not already the case) a many headed monster—a heterogenious mass—that never will, or can, steer to the same point."
1787- Shays Rebellion
Daniel Shays was accepted to the militia, during the American Revolution he rose to the rank of captain in the 5th Massachusetts Regiment of the Continental Army by 1777. He was involved in the Boston campaign and fought at the Battle of Bunker Hill. He also fought in the Battle of Lexington and the Battle of Saratoga. He was wounded during the war and resigned from the military unpaid in 1780. Upon returning home, he was summoned to court for unpaid debts, which he could not pay because he had not been paid in full for his military service.
The economy during the American Revolutionary War was largely subsistence agriculture in the rural parts of New England, particularly in the hill towns of central and western Massachusetts. Some residents in these areas had few assets beyond their land, and they bartered with one another for goods and services. In lean times, farmers might obtain goods on credit from suppliers in local market towns who would be paid when times were better. The rural farming population was generally unable to meet the demands of merchants and the civil authorities, and some began to lose their land and other possessions when they were unable to fulfill their debt and tax obligations.
One Farmer stated - "I have been greatly abused, have been obliged to do more than my part in the war, been loaded with class rates, town rates, province rates, Continental rates, and all rates ... been pulled and hauled by sheriffs, constables, and collectors, and had my cattle sold for less than they were worth ... The great men are going to get all we have and I think it is time for us to rise and put a stop to it, and have no more courts, nor sheriffs, nor collectors nor lawyers."
Veterans had received little pay during the war and faced added difficulty collecting payments owed to them from the State or the Congress of the Confederation. Some soldiers began to organize protests against these oppressive economic conditions.
The federal government had been unable to recruit soldiers for the army because of a lack of funding, so Massachusetts leaders decided to act independently. On January 4, 1787, Governor Bowdoin proposed creating a privately funded militia army. The 3,000 militiamen who were recruited into this army were almost entirely from the eastern counties of Massachusetts, and they marched to Worcester on January 19.
Shepard first ordered warning shots fired over the heads of Shays' men. He then ordered two cannons to fire. Four Shaysites were killed and 20 wounded. There was no musket fire from either side. The rebel advance collapsed with most of the rebel forces fleeing north. Both Shays' men and Day's men eventually regrouped. The General immediately began marching west from Worcester with the 3,000 men that had been mustered. The rebels moved generally north and east to avoid him, eventually establishing a camp. They raided the shops of local merchants for supplies along the way and took some of the merchants hostage. They surprised the rebel camp so thoroughly that the rebels scattered "without time to call in their out parties or even their guards". Lincoln claimed to capture 150 men but none of them were officers. Ringleaders who eluded capture fled to neighboring states, and pockets of local resistance continued.
Four thousand people signed confessions acknowledging participation in the events of the rebellion in exchange for forgiveness. Several hundred participants were eventually indicted on charges relating to the rebellion, but most of these were pardoned. Two men were hanged. Shays was pardoned in 1788 and he returned to Massachusetts from hiding in the Vermont woods. He was vilified by the Boston press, who painted him as an archetypal anarchist opposed to the government.
No taxes to pay the troops. Taxes may be annoying but sometimes they're essential.
1787- Federalist Papers
At the time of the rebellion, the weaknesses of the federal government under the Articles of Confederation were apparent to many. A vigorous debate was going on throughout the states on the need for a stronger central government, with Federalists arguing for the idea, and Anti-Federalists opposing them. Historical opinion is divided on what sort of role the rebellion played in the formation and later ratification of the United States Constitution, although most scholars agree that it played some role, at least temporarily drawing some anti-Federalists to the strong government side.
Jefferson stood by his free and unregulated vision of the nation but other founding fathers disagreed. He argued in a letter to James Madison that occasional rebellion serves to preserve freedoms. Jefferson wrote, "The tree of liberty must be refreshed from time to time with the blood of patriots and tyrants."
George Washington disagreed with him. "You talk, my good sir, of employing influence to appease the present tumults in Massachusetts. I know not where that influence is to be found, or, if attainable, that it would be a proper remedy for the disorders. Influence is not government. Let us have a government by which our lives, liberties, and properties will be secured, or let us know the worst at once."
Founding Fathers James Madison (Deist, Politician of Virginia & Tobacco Plantation owner.), Alexander Hamilton (Deist, Lawyer) and John Jay (Christian, Politician of New York, Strict Anti-Catholic) argued in favor of a Federal government to bring together the individual states and look out for the interests of all of them. They published the Federalist Papers weekly in three newspapers under the collective name "Publius" after a Roman who helped promote the Republic in the Roman Empire.
They argued that the States needed to have a stronger unity and management. They argued that this was required to efficiently pay foreign debts, defend themselves and negotiate with other countries on trade.
How can we listen to 13 different voices?
They wanted to consume and share out all the separate state debts.
People saw themselves as Citizens of states first and foremost.
Federalist #10
In Federalist 10, which became the most influential of all the essays, Madison argued against the French political philosopher Montesquieu’s assertion that true democracy—including Montesquieu’s concept of the separation of powers—was feasible only for small states. A larger republic, Madison suggested, could more easily balance the competing interests of the different groups (or “factions”) within it. “Extend the sphere, and you take in a greater variety of parties and interests,” he wrote. “[Y]ou make it less probable that a majority of the whole will have a common motive to invade the rights of other citizens[.]”
This would later prove to be questionable when the Civil War would break out.
Federalist #51
“If men were angels, no government would be necessary,” “If angels were to govern men, neither external nor internal controls on government would be necessary.”
Federalist #70
Energy arises from the proceedings of a single person, characterized by, "decision, activity, secrecy, and dispatch," while safety arises from the unitary executive's unconcealed accountability to the people.
Federalist #78
In Federalist No. 78, Hamilton said that the Judiciary branch of the proposed government would be the weakest of the three branches because it had "no influence over either the sword or the purse, ...It may truly be said to have neither FORCE nor WILL, but merely judgment." Federalist No. 78 quotes Montesquieu: "Of the three powers [...], the judiciary is next to nothing." There was little concern that the judiciary might be able to overpower the political branches; since Congress controlled the flow of money and the President the military, courts did not have nearly the same power from a constitutional design standpoint. The Judiciary would depend on the political branches to uphold its judgments. Legal academics often argue over Hamilton's description of the judiciary as the "least dangerous" branch. Hamilton also explains how federal judges should retain life terms as long as those judges exhibit good behavior.
Federalist #84
Alexander Hamilton argues that the Bill of Rights is not necessary.
"I go further and affirm that bills of rights, in the sense and in the extent in which they are contended for, are not only unnecessary in the proposed constitution, but would even be dangerous. They would contain various exceptions to powers which are not granted; and on this very account, would afford a colorable pretext to claim more than were granted. For why declare that things shall not be done which there is no power to do? Why for instance, should it be said, that the liberty of the press shall not be restrained, when no power is given by which restrictions may be imposed? I will not contend that such a provision would confer a regulating power; but it is evident that it would furnish, to men disposed to usurp, a plausible pretense for claiming that power."
Anti-Federalists
Richard Lee, George Clinton, Patrick Henry argued for the Jeffersonian individual self-reliant states. They were afraid that a President would become like a king. "Are you crazy?" They said. You want to replace a King with a President? Look how that went with Oliver Cromwell. One despot for another.
- They believed the Constitution needed a Bill of Rights.
- They believed the Constitution created a presidency so powerful that it would become a monarchy.
- They believed the Constitution provided insufficient rights in the courts (e.g., no guarantee of juries in civil cases, nor that criminal case juries be local) and would create an out-of-control judiciary.
- They believed that the national government would be too far away from the people and thus unresponsive to the needs of localities.
- They believed the Constitution would reduce, at least in part, the power of the states.
After so recent a triumph over British despots, after such torrents of blood and treasure have been spent, after involving ourselves in the distresses of an arduous war, and incurring such a debt for the express purpose of asserting the rights of humanity; it is truly astonishing that a set of men among ourselves should have the effrontery to attempt the destruction of our liberties.
Thomas Paine and Alexander Hamilton argued against the need for a Bill of Rights.
Thomas Paine, George Washington, James Madison, Alexander Hamilton and John Jay were federalists.
Samuel Adams, Thomas Jefferson, James Monroe, John Hancock and Patrick Henry were anti-federalists.
Ratification
After nearly four months of debate, on September 8, 1787, the final text of the Constitution was set down and revised. The effort consisted of copying the text (prelude, articles and endorsement) on four sheets of parchment, made from treated animal skin and probably with a goose quill. On September 17, 1787, following a speech given by Benjamin Franklin, 39 delegates endorsed and submitted the Constitution to the Congress of the Confederation.
Three states Ratified the document that same year. Two of them unanimously with 69/69 electoral votes.
Southern states were split as was New York. The Federalists suggested recognizing slaves as residents of the states as 3/4th a person. This wasn't necessarily a valuation of African Americans but just a compromise to gain southern support.
When appealing to New York, the Federalists negotiated to include the Bill of Rights. This wasn't a popular move but seen as a necessary one. It narrowly passed with 30 votes to 27.
1789- US Constitution effective
After a year of debating the consensus decision was that an over-sight of the individual states was needed. The United States would be stronger together. The United States became United.
It is regarded as the oldest written and codified national constitution in force. (Analyze the language)
1789 - Washington as first president
George Washington was inaugurated as the nation's first president 8 weeks later, on April 30, 1788. He was voted in unanimously. The final two states both ratified the Constitution subsequently: North Carolina on November 21, 1789 and Rhode Island on May 29, 1790.
Suspicion of a powerful federal executive was answered by Washington's cabinet appointments of once-Anti-Federalists Edmund Jennings Randolph as Attorney General and Thomas Jefferson as Secretary of State. They were both Anti-Federalists and their involvement with the government put a lot of people at ease.
George Washington was seen as the nations war hero and the citizens rallied behind him. He was the most popular personality in the colonies. He won his re-election 132/132.
1790- John Tyler born
1790 - Benjamin Franklin dies
In poor health during the signing of the US Constitution in 1787, he was rarely seen in public from then until his death. Benjamin Franklin died from pleuritic attack at his home in Philadelphia on April 17, 1790. He was aged 84 at the time of his death. His last words were reportedly, "a dying man can do nothing easy", to his daughter after she suggested that he change position in bed and lie on his side so he could breathe more easily. Approximately 20,000 people attended his funeral. Upon learning of his death, the Constitutional Assembly in Revolutionary France entered into a state of mourning for a period of three days, and memorial services were conducted in honor of Franklin throughout the country.
1790- The Compromise of 1790 was a compromise between Alexander Hamilton and Thomas Jefferson with James Madison, where Hamilton won the decision for the national government to take over and pay the state debts, and Jefferson and Madison obtained the national capital (District of Columbia) for the South. Nevertheless, new Yorkers felt abandoned and southerners felt like they'd compromised on their freedom.
1790 - Washington Chooses location of new nations capital. Chosen midway between Maine and Georgia. Happens to be close to Washington's own estate. Federal government needed protection. They named in after him. Washington, DC. He was the only president not to live in the white house.
1791- James Buchanan born
1791 – Vermont joined USA
In 1790, 19% of Americans lived in Virginia. Today 2.6% of Americans do.
1791 - Bill of Rights
George Washington's Farewell Address
"FRIENDS AND FELLOW-CITIZENS:
The period for a new election of a citizen, to administer the executive government of the United States, being not far distant, and the time actually arrived, when your thoughts must be employed designating the person, who is to be clothed with that important trust, it appears to me proper, especially as it may conduce to a more distinct expression of the public voice, that I should now apprize you of the resolution I have formed, to decline being considered among the number of those out of whom a choice is to be made."
At last, the “seditious printer” had been arrested; now his “scurrilous rants” would cease. But things did not play out that way – the day after his arrest Bache vowed in the Aurora never to abandon “the cause of truth and republicanism,” which he pledged to honor to “the best of his abilities, while life remains.”
Though Bache may have escaped the Sedition Act, it was only because death by yellow fever took care of him before Adams could.
Matthew Lyon proceeded to spit chewed tobacco juice into Roger Griswold's face. The House voted to expel Lyon on the grounds of “gross indecency”.
When the vote came back not to punish Lyon, Griswold took a walking cane and attacked Lyon in the house of representatives. Lyon defended himself with a pair of fire tongs.
Election of 1800
Meanwhile, Jefferson and Burr Meanwhile, the Democratic-Republicans accused Federalists of subverting republican principles with the Alien and Sedition Acts and anti-democratic values.
The campaign was bitter and characterized by slander and personal attacks on both sides. Federalists spread rumors that the Democratic-Republicans were radical atheists who would ruin the country (based on the Democratic-Republican support for the French Revolution). In 1798, George Washington had complained "that you could as soon scrub the blackamoor white, as to change the principles of a professed Democrat; and that he will leave nothing unattempted to overturn the Government of this Country".
Jefferson won the 1800 presidential election 73/65. Again the majority of votes came for Adams in New England but Adams had lost New York which lost him the re-election.
Morocco was the first country whose head of state publicly recognized the newly independent United States. Relations were formalized with the Moroccan–American Treaty of Friendship negotiated by Thomas Barclay in Marrakesh, and signed by American diplomats in Europe, Thomas Jefferson, John Adams with Sultan Muhammad III in 1786.
The United States had signed treaties with all of the Barbary states after its independence was recognized between 1786-1794 to pay tribute in exchange for leaving American merchantmen alone, and by 1797, the United States had paid out $1.25 million or a fifth of the government's annual budget then in tribute. These demands for tribute had imposed a heavy financial drain and by 1799 the U.S. was in arrears of $140,000 to Algiers and some $150,000 to Tripoli. Many Americans resented these payments, arguing that the money would be better spent on a navy that would protect American ships from the attacks of the Barbary pirates, and in the 1800 Presidential Election, Thomas Jefferson won against incumbent second President John Adams, in part by noting that the United States was "subjected to the spoliations of foreign cruisers" and was humiliated by paying "an enormous tribute to the petty tyrant of Algiers".
By the 19th century, pirate activity had declined, but Barbary pirates continued to demand tribute from American merchant vessels in the Mediterranean. Refusal to pay would result in the capturing of American ships and goods, and often the enslavement or ransoming of crew members. Jefferson sent a US Naval fleet to the Mediterranean to combat the Barbary pirates. The fleet bombarded numerous fortified cities.
During this war, the ship Philadelphia was blockading Tripoli's harbor when she ran aground on an uncharted reef. Under fire from shore batteries and Tripolitan gunboats, the Captain, William Bainbridge, tried to refloat her by casting off all of her guns and other objects that weighed it down. The ship was eventually captured, and the crew taken prisoners and put into slavery. To prevent this powerful war ship from being used by the Barbary pirates the ship was later destroyed by a raiding party of American Marines and soldiers and allied sailors from the armed forces of King Ferdinand of Sicily.
Congress appropriated $800,000 for the release of American prisoners and for a peace treaty with Algiers, Tunis, and Tripoli. American negotiators signed a peace treaty that included an upfront payment of $642,500 for peace, the release of American captives. An additional indefinite yearly tribute of $21,600 The treaty, designed to prevent further piracy, resulted in the release of 115 American sailors held captive by the Dey.
Jefferson's own Democratic-Republicans and anti-navalists believed that the future of the country lay in westward expansion, with Atlantic trade threatening to siphon money and energy away from the new nation, to be spent on wars in the Old World.
Battle of Derna
Jefferson made a deal to back the Royal claim of Prince Hamet of Tripoli who was in exile in Egypt. If they helped him reclaim the throne, then Hamet would leave the Americans alone. So, the Americans recruited 400 Greek & Arab Mercenaries to help them. They trekked 500 miles through the Libyan desert.
On March 8, 1805, Lieutenant Eaton (as self-designated general and commander in chief) began to lead his forces on a 500 miles (800 km) trek westward across the Libyan North African desert from Egypt. Their objective was the port city of Derna. The mercenary forces were promised supplies and money when they reached the city. During the 50-day trek, Eaton became worried over the strained relationship between the 200 Christian Greeks and the roughly 200 to 300 Muslim Arab and Turkish mercenaries. The expedition's supplies were dwindling with Eaton reporting in 1805, "Our only provisions [are] a handful of rice and two biscuits a day." At one point, some of the Arabs in the expedition made a desperate attempt to raid the supply wagon but were beaten back by the Marines and a few Greek artillerymen, who used the expedition's lone cannon. Mutiny threatened the success of the expedition on several occasions. Between March 10 and March 18, several Arab camel drivers mutinied before they had reached the sanctuary of the Massouah Castle. When they crossed the border into Libya and Tripoli, the mercenaries relaxed and re-focused on the task. In late April, his army finally reached the port city of Bomba, on the Gulf of Bomba, some miles up the coast from Derna, where US Navy warships Argus, Nautilus and Hornet were waiting for him. They received fresh supplies and the money to pay his mercenaries.
The US general sent a letter to Mustafa Bey, the governor of Derna, to ask for safe passage through the city and additional supplies. Mustafa reportedly wrote back, "My head or yours!"
The brig USS Argus sent a cannon ashore to use in the attack. Captain Hull's ships then opened fire and bombarded Derna's batteries for an hour. Meanwhile, the general divided his army into two separate attacking parties. Hamet was to lead the Arab mercenaries southwest to cut the road to Tripoli and then attack the city's left flank and storm the weakly defended governor's palace. With the rest of the mercenaries and the squad of Marines would attack the harbor fortress. The ships would fire on the heavily defended port batteries. The harbor defenses had been reinforced, and the attackers were temporarily halted. That, however, had weakened the defenses elsewhere and allowed the Arab mercenaries to ride unopposed into the western section of the city.
Eaton's mercenary army was hesitant under the enemy's musket fire, and he realized that a charge was the only way to regain the initiative. Leading the charge, he was seriously wounded in the wrist by a musketball. On the Argus, Captain Hull saw the Americans and mercenaries were "gaining ground very fast though a heavy fire of Musquetry [sic] was constantly kept upon them." The ships ceased fire to allow the charge to continue. Eaton would report that O'Bannon with his Marines and Greeks "pass'd through a shower of Musketry from the Walls of houses, took possession of the Battery." The defenders fled in haste and left their cannons loaded and ready to fire. O'Bannon raised the American flag over the battery (the unique 15 stars, 15 stripes emblem used from 1795 to 1818.)
Hamet's force had seized the governor's palace and secured the western part of the city. Many of the defenders of the harbor fortress fled through the town and ran into Hamet's force. By 4:00 p.m. the entire city had fallen, and for the first time in history, an American flag flew over fortifications on the opposite side of the Atlantic Ocean.
Mariner’s Song “Shores of Tripoli”
Days later, the Marines was informed of the treaty signed on June 10, 1805, between American from the US State Department and Yusuf Karamanli. In the middle of his trek, Eaton was ordered to return to Egypt with Hamet. The troops were furious over what he called a "sell-out". The Arab merceneries were left in Derna and were never paid for what they had achieved.
In agreeing to pay a ransom of $60,000 for the American prisoners, the Jefferson administration drew a distinction between paying tribute and paying ransom. At the time, some argued that buying sailors out of slavery was a fair exchange to end the war.
The First Barbary War showed that America could execute a war far from home, and that American forces had the cohesion to fight together as Americans
1806 - Jefferson's grandson James Madison Randolph became the first child born in the White House.
In the election of 1808, Jefferson honored the precedent set by Washington and refused to run for a third term. His popularity had decreased somewhat after the economic effects of the Embargo Act. James Madison ran on the same ideology as Jefferson and won the presidency.
[Bias Lesson]
There were a few high profile incidents. One was the USS Chesapeake against HMS Leopard in which the two ships briefly fought before the British boarded the Chesapeake and took the crew prisoner. In 1811, USS President and HMS Little Belt got into a battle off the coast of North Carolina.
The Captain of the USS President mistook HMS Little Belt for a British ship that had been impressing sailors in the area. The British Captain signaled the USS President asking for identification but received none, but he noticed a blue pennant showing the ship's nationality was American. HMS Little Belt continued south, but the American ship continued its pursuit because he wanted to know the stranger's identity.
The British and American accounts disagree on what followed. As President closed with Little Belt, The Americans thought the frigate was maneuvering to fire on their ship. At about 10:15, each captain demanded the other identify his ship. Each refused to answer before the other. Each captain later claimed he had been the first to ask. Shortly after this a shot was fired, but it is disputed who shot it. The ships were soon engaged in a battle which the smaller British ship had no chance of winning. After fifteen minutes, most of British guns had been put out of action, and the Americans ordered a cease fire. President had only one man injured. Little Belt suffered eleven dead and 21 injured. The USS President returned to check if the badly damaged British ship could still sail and when they found that it could they left it in peace. The next morning, the American Captain went from President to Little Belt to make peace and offer the British ship space at any American port to do repairs, which they declined. The British Captain asked why President had attacked his much smaller ship. The American Captain said it was because Little Belt had "provoked" the action. The British Captain rejected the charge. The British and American governments argued about the encounter for months. The Americans insisted that they had mistaken the ship for a bigger ship and were adamant that the British had fired first. The British insisted they were chased down by an American ship looking for trouble.
Causes of 1812
In 1810, Britain was forcing US ships to pay a tax in England before trading with other European nations. USA saw this as a violation of their sovereignty, which it was. However, most American ships paid the tax for 2 years. Britain also still owned Canada and it acted as a close observer to the United States experiment and many Americans felt like the UK was still a lingering presence on the continent.
Frustrated Indians were fighting the US government for their ancestral lands. American expansion into the new territory had been long obstructed by the various tribes including the Delaware, Fox, Kickapoo, Miami, Sauk, Shawnee, Winnebago and Wyandot peoples who lived there. The Indians maintained this resistance with supplies and encouragement from the British. American settlers on the western frontier demanded that the British cease this practice, as they were suffering from Indian raids It had recently been sold to the US Government by France and the Indians were trying to resist their rule. Britain saw this and decided to help them by supplying weapons and provisions. The US government discovered this interference at the Battle of Tippecanoe in 1811.
The American government began arguing about what to do. A group of politicians known as the ‘War Hawks’ pushed for a war with Great Britain. Since the Louisiana Purchase, Americans were beginning to dream of a nation from sea-to-shining-sea. Canada (Still a British territory) was seen as a hinderance to that dream. Other anti-war politicians didn’t want to invade Canada because it would upset the balance between free states and slave states. Anti-Catholics also didn’t want the French-Catholic’s of British Canada to be a part of the United States.
James Madison was initially against the war. "War is the parent of armies; from these proceed debts and taxes; and armies, and debts, and taxes are the known instruments for bringing the many under the domination of the few."
The Americans claimed many reasons for claiming war on Great Britain.
- Funding Indians in the West
- Impressment in the Atlantic
- Taxation in Europe
Representative John Randolph of Virginia opposed the call for war: “If you go to war it will not be for the protection of, or defense of your maritime rights. Gentlemen from the North have been taken up some high mountain… and Canada seems tempting to their sights…[Greed for land], not maritime rights, urges the war… We have heard but one word…—Canada! Canada! Canada!…”
"the desire for Canada did not cause the War of 1812" and that "The United States did not declare war because it wanted to obtain Canada, but the acquisition of Canada was viewed as a major collateral benefit of the conflict"
"most historians agree that the War of 1812 was not caused by expansionism but instead reflected a real concern of American patriots to defend United States' neutral rights from the overbearing tyranny of the British Navy. That is not to say that expansionist aims would not potentially result from the war"
"The other war hawks spoke of the struggle with Britain as a second war of independence; Andrew Jackson, who still bore scars from the first war of independence, held that view with special conviction. The approaching conflict was about violations of American rights, but it was also about vindication of American identity .Some Americans at the time and some historians since have called it a "Second War of Independence" for the United States.”
The American Government declared war on Great Britain on June 18th, 1812. Great Britain repealed the oppressive tax bill 5 days later but neither the British knew that America had declared war and the Americans didn’t know the British had repealed the tax. It look 3 weeks for news to cross the Atlantic. (No internet) However, it’s unknown if the repealed tax would’ve been enough to prevent war.
Baltimore Riots
On the night of 22 June 1812, just four days after war had been declared, an angry mob gathered outside the office of the Federal Republican newspaper. Angered by the paper's criticism of the Republican administration, the entire office was leveled to its foundations and printing apparatus' were destroyed by the mob. One of the editors narrowly escaped with his life. One of the attackers was killed as he attempted to knock out a window on the upper floor and fell with it on to the street below. The papers editor vowed to recommence the paper to assert his rights and resist oppression. The mobs continued for several more weeks and anyone with Federalist or Pro-British views were attacked.
The papers editor re-established the Federal Republican in the house of one of its faithful readers. Fearing that another mob may form, the men were prepared to defend the house and armed themselves with muskets, pistols and swords. Shortly after eight o' clock in the evening a mob formed outside and threw stones at the house which broke the windows and burst open the shutters. One man fired warning shots over the heads of the mob to try and frighten them away, but to no avail. The mob broke open the lower door and were fired upon, hitting and killing a man named Dr. Gale, forcing him to be dragged off by the mob. The violence continued throughout the night in which resulted in several men being wounded.
Around sunrise the next day, the mob brought an artillery field piece and placed it in front of the house, but they were prevented from firing it by the arrival of the mayor and other officials. The men were eventually persuaded to vacate the house and taken to the Baltimore Prison under armed guard. The men were marched through the streets on the one mile journey, protected by two lines of around fifty infantry. Some of the men were injured as protesters who lined the streets threw stones.
The men were placed in the prison without armed guard, that despite the mayor promising one and stating that he would lose his own life before the men should be hurt. A mob said to number around 300 soon gathered outside the prison by nightfall and managed to break in to the prison almost instantly without exertion, making the men believe that it was opened by someone with a key. The men attempted to rush the mob to escape, but to no avail, and nine of them were beaten whilst others were not recognized by the mob and managed to escape unhurt. The men were stabbed and one of them killed. Another man was tarred and feathered and paraded around town on the back of a cart. The men were eventually saved by a Dr. Hall, who encouraged the mob to retire until morning. Hall and four other doctors tended to the men's wounds and commandeered Carriages for the men to make their escape.
United States of Canada?
On 28 June 1812, HMS Colibri was despatched from Halifax to New York under a flag of truce. She anchored off Sandy Hook on July 9 and left three days later carrying a copy of the declaration of war. A British commander in Upper Canada received the news much faster. He issued a proclamation alerting citizens to the state of war and urging all military personnel "to be vigilant in the discharge of their duty". The British waited for the Americans to react first and two weeks later, on July, 12th 1812 An American army invaded Canada.
The forces were chiefly composed of untrained and ill-disciplined militiamen. The Lieutenant issued a proclamation ordering all British subjects to surrender, or "the horrors, and calamities of war will stalk before you". Convinced that being an American citizen was superior to being a British subject, he offered to battle the British army on behalf of the inhabitants. “You will be emancipated from Tyranny and oppression,” he assured them, “restored to the dignified station of freemen.” General Alexander Smyth similarly declared to his troops when they invaded Canada that "you will enter a country that is to become one of the United States. You will arrive among a people who are to become your fellow-citizens".
Meanwhile, Canadians were generally pretty pleased with being subjects of the British and most Canadians didn’t want to be part of the United States.
The United States was also not prepared for war. Jefferson had got rid of the national bank and so organizing a national army was difficult. Madison had assumed that the state militias would easily seize Canada and that negotiations would follow. In 1812, the regular army consisted of fewer than 12,000 men. Congress authorized the expansion of the army to 35,000 men, but the service was voluntary and unpopular; it paid poorly and there were initially few trained and experienced officers. The militia objected to serving outside their home states, they were undisciplined and performed poorly against British forces when called upon to fight in unfamiliar territory. Multiple militia refused orders to cross the border and fight on Canadian soil.
The British & Canadian troops reacted against the American invaders and pushed them back. By August 7th, the American army had retreated from Canada back to the United States across the Detroit river. The British continued to push into American territory and with the help of the Shawnee & Potawatomi Indians, captured the town of Detroit. Future president, William Henry Harrison took command of the American troops. The Americans then won important victories at the Battle of Lake Erie and the Battle of the Thames. In December the Americans captured Fort George in Canada but later abandoned it, burning a town down as they left. In return the British invaded Buffalo and burn it to the ground. The Americans pushed them back into Canada and the British attempted to counter. The Americans withdrew but withstood a prolonged siege of Fort Erie. The British tried to storm Fort Erie on 14 August 1814, but they suffered heavy losses, losing 950 killed, wounded and captured compared to only 84 dead and wounded on the American side.
The British Royal Navy's blockades and raids allowed about 4,000 African Americans to escape slavery by fleeing American plantations aboard British ships. American slaves near to the British military rebelled against their masters and made their way to British encampments. The migrants who settled in Canada were known as the Black Refugees. The blockading British fleet in the Chesapeake Bay received increasing numbers of freed slaves during 1813. By British government order, they were considered free persons when they reached British hands.
Old Ironsides
Much of the War of 1812 was fought by ships. The British had control of Lake Ontario and the Americans gained control of Lake Erie. The most famous of these one on one battles between ships was that of the USS Constitution vs HMS Guerriere. 750 miles east of Boston the USS Constitution sighted HMS Guerriere. After maneuvering for advantage both ships were at broadsides at a range of 75 yards. The result was very one-sided. Guerriere had lost one of her masts and many of her gun crews. With one of Guerriere's masts in the water the ship was hard to maneuver. The return fire from Guerriere was far less successful. After one cannonball bounced "harmlessly" off the side of Constitution, a crew member is said to have yelled "Huzzah! Her sides are made of iron!" From then on she was nicknamed, “Old Ironsides”. A failed boarding attempt was made by Guerriere and she swung helplessly into the wind as Constitution luffed by her bow raining down musket fire on her quarterdeck then raking her with a port broadside. Completely de-masted by Constitution's fire the Guerriere surrendered.
Conclusion of the Napoleonic War
In 1815, the British defeated Napoleon & France in Europe and were now able to focus their energy on the war with America.
Attack on Washington
The British sailed up the Chesapeake and attacked Washington DC. Rear Admiral Cockburn accurately predicted that "within a short period of time, with enough force, we could easily have at our mercy the capital". He had recommended Washington as the target, because of the comparative ease of attacking the national capital and "the greater political effect likely to result". Major General Ross was less optimistic. He "never dreamt for one minute that an army of 3,500 men with 1,000 marines reinforcement, with no cavalry, hardly any artillery, could march 50 miles inland and capture an enemy capital". The British justified the attack by referencing the recent attacks of private property and destruction of the Canadian city of York.
When the British arrived at the White House, they found that President James Madison and his first lady Dolley had already fled to safety in Maryland. Soldiers reportedly sat down to eat a meal made of leftover food from the White House scullery using White House dishes and silver before ransacking the presidential mansion and setting it ablaze.
Less than four days after the attack began, a sudden, very heavy thunderstorm—possibly a hurricane—put out the fires. It also spun off a tornado that passed through the center of the capital, setting down on Constitution Avenue and lifting two cannons before dropping them several yards away and killing British troops and American civilians alike.
The British occupation of Washington lasted only about 26 hours. Despite this, the "Storm that saved Washington", as it became known, did the opposite according to some. The rains sizzled and cracked the already charred walls of the White House and ripped away at structures the British had no plans to destroy (such as the Patent Office). The storm may have exacerbated an already dire situation for Washington D.C.
Battle of Baltimore
The British continued to march north, heading toward Baltimore and synchronized a naval attack from the Atlantic. The land and air units converged on Baltimore. The British sent in a total of 16 ships. HMS Devastation, HMS Terror, HMS Meteor, HMS Volcano, HMS Surprise, HMS Madagascar, HMS Wolverine, HMS Rover, HMS Seahorse & HMS Cockchafer for some. The British were winning their battles on land, fighting their way through the battle of North Point and the Battle of Hampstead Hill.
The Americans took a stand at Fort McHenry. The attack began on September 13, as the British fleet of some nineteen ships began pounding the fort with artillery. The British continued to bombard the American for the next 25 hours. Although 1,500 to 1,800 cannonballs were launched at the fort, damage was light because of recent fortification that had been completed prior to the battle.
An American lawyer and amateur poet, Francis Scott Key watched the proceedings from a truce ship in the river. On the morning of the 14th, Key saw the American flag waving above Fort McHenry. Inspired, he began jotting down verses on the back of a letter he was carrying. Key's poem was originally named "Defense on Fort McHenry" was printed on pamphlets by the Baltimore American.
Key's poem was later set to the tune of a British song called "To Anacreon in Heaven," an 18th-century gentlemen's club of amateur musicians in London. The song eventually became known as "The Star-Spangled Banner." The US Congress made it the national anthem of the United States in 1931.
Treaty
At this point, both sides were tired of fighting and sent representatives to a neutral location in Belgium to negotiate. British diplomats stated their case first, demanding the creation of an Indian barrier state in the American Northwest Territory. Britain also demanded naval control of the Great Lakes and access to the Mississippi River. On the American side, they wanted the British to cede the Canadas, or at least Upper Canada, to the U.S. At a later stage, the Americans also demanded damages for the burning of Washington and for the seizure of ships before the war began. After months of negotiations, against a background of changing military victories, defeats and losses, Britain and the United States finally realized that both their nations wanted peace and there was no real reason to continue the war.
The border between the United States and Canada remained essentially unchanged by the Treaty of Ghent. The issue of impressment became irrelevant when the Royal Navy no longer needed sailors and stopped impressing them. On Christmas Eve, 1814, Britain and the United States signed a treaty to end the war. However, this news took 3 weeks to cross the Atlantic. (No Internet)
Battle of New Orleans
The British began firing artillery at the American army on New Year’s day 1815. The Americans recovered quickly and mobilized their own artillery to fire back at the British artillery. This began an exchange of artillery fire that continued for three hours. Despite a large British advantage in numbers, training, and experience, the American forces defeated a poorly executed assault in slightly more than 30 minutes. The Americans suffered roughly 60 casualties, while the British suffered roughly 2,000. Future President Andrew Jackson lead the Americans. The British withdrew from the attack on New Orleans and a few days later both sides received word that the war was over.
The Americans ended the war with a victory and even though it happened after the Treaty of Ghent, it made Americans feel like they had won the whole war. The war in general also made them feel like they had won their 2nd war of independence even though Britain had no expectation of taking the United States back. The war however, did boost morale, national pride and unity within the United States and made them feel like they could stand up for themselves when they needed to.
The Era of Good Feeling
The Era of Good Feelings started in 1815 in the mood of victory that swept the nation at the end of the War of 1812. Celebration replaced the bitter political divisions between Federalists and Republicans, the North and South, and the East Coast cities and settlers on the American frontier. The political hostilities declined because the Federalist Party had largely dissolved after being remembered as against the war that had brought Americans so much pride.
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